Health Library

Our Health Library information does not replace the advice of a doctor. Please be advised that this information is made available to assist our patients to learn more about their health. Our providers may not see and/or treat all topics found herein.

Category: Urinary system

Abdominal Pain, Age 11 and Younger
Briefly discusses possible causes of abdominal pain in children 11 and younger, including stomach flu, urinary tract infection, constipation, and appendicitis. Offers interactive tool to help decide when to seek care. Also offers home treatment tips.

Abdominal Pain, Age 12 and Older
Briefly discusses symptoms and possible causes of abdominal pain, such as peptic ulcer disease, indigestion, appendicitis, and stomach flu. Offers interactive tool to help decide when to seek care. Also offers home treatment tips.

Abdominal Ultrasound
An abdominal ultrasound takes pictures of the organs and other structures in your upper belly. It uses sound waves to show images on a screen. Areas that can be checked include the: Abdominal aorta. This large blood vessel passes down the back of the chest and belly. It supplies blood to the lower part of the body and...

Abdominal X-Ray
An abdominal X-ray is a picture of structures and organs in the belly (abdomen). This includes the stomach, liver, spleen, and large and small intestines. It also includes the diaphragm, which is the muscle that separates the chest and belly areas. Often two X-rays will be taken from different positions. If the test is...

Absorbent Products for Urinary Incontinence
Absorbent products are items that absorb urine, such as adult diapers, plastic-coated underwear, pads, or panty liners that attach to underwear. Most commercially available items are disposable (such as Depend or Poise). Some absorbent cloths can be...

Active Surveillance for Prostate Cancer
Active surveillance is an option for some people who have slow-growing cancer that hasn't spread outside the prostate (localized). With active surveillance, you'll have regular checkups and tests. You won't have treatment unless tests show the cancer is growing. Some people will never need treatment. It may seem odd to...

Acute Kidney Injury
Discusses acute kidney injury (which used to be called acute renal failure). It means your kidneys suddenly stop working normally. Includes prerenal acute kidney injury. Covers causes like kidney or liver disease. Includes symptoms like little urine (oliguria) when you urinate. Covers dialysis.

Acute Kidney Injury Versus Chronic Kidney Disease
Kidney problems can develop suddenly (acute) or over the long term (chronic). Many conditions, diseases, and medicines can create situations that lead to acute and chronic kidney problems. Acute kidney injury, which used to be called acute renal failure, is more commonly reversible than chronic kidney failure. Acute...

Advance Care Planning: Should I Stop Kidney Dialysis?
Guides through decision to stop kidney dialysis for kidney failure. Covers key factors in decision. Covers benefits and risks. Discusses what happens after dialysis is stopped. Offers interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Albumin Urine Test
Discusses a test that checks urine for a protein called albumin. Covers possible kidney damage and diabetes. Explains how test is done. Discusses normal and abnormal values from the test. Covers what affects the test.

Anemia of Chronic Kidney Disease
What is anemia of chronic kidney disease? Anemia of chronic kidney disease means that kidney disease has caused your anemia. Your doctor will have ruled out other causes of anemia. Anemia means that you do not have enough red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to your body's tissues. If your...

Angiogram
An angiogram is an X-ray test that uses dye and a camera to take pictures of the blood flow in an artery or a vein. An angiogram can be used to look at the arteries or veins in the head, arms, legs, chest, back, or belly. This test is done to look for problems in the arteries or veins. An angiogram is done for many...

Artificial Sphincter for Urinary Incontinence in Men
An artificial sphincter is a device made of silicone rubber that is used to treat urinary incontinence. An artificial sphincter has an inflatable cuff that fits around the urethra close to the point where it joins the bladder. A balloon regulates the pressure of the cuff, and a bulb controls inflation and deflation of...

Basic Metabolic Panel
Briefly discusses basic metabolic panel, a blood test that measures your sugar (glucose) level, electrolyte and fluid balance, and kidney function. Provides links to more info on specific tests such as blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and potassium tests.

Bed-Wetting in Children
What is bed-wetting? Bed-wetting is accidental urination during sleep. Children learn bladder control at different ages. Children younger than 4 often wet their beds or clothes because they can't yet control their bladders. But by age 5 or 6, most children can stay dry through the night. In some cases, the child has...

Behavioral Methods for Urinary Incontinence
Several types of behavioral methods are used for treating urinary incontinence: bladder training, pelvic muscle exercises (Kegels), and biofeedback. People who have incontinence due to physical or mental limitations (functional incontinence) also have options. They can plan to use the toilet before they feel like they...

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
What is benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)? Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an enlarged prostate gland. The prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. As the prostate gets bigger, it may squeeze or partly block the urethra. This often causes problems with...

Bladder Cancer
Discusses the causes and symptoms of bladder cancer. Covers how it is diagnosed and treatment options, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Offers home treatment suggestions to manage side effects like nausea and trouble sleeping.

Bladder Cancer Treatment: Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Bladder cancer occurs when cells in the bladder start to grow without control. The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ in the lower part of the abdomen that stores urine. . The bladder has a muscular wall that allows it to get larger to store urine made by the kidneys and to shrink to squeeze urine out of the...

Bladder Pain Syndrome (Interstitial Cystitis)
What is bladder pain syndrome (BPS)? Bladder pain syndrome (BPS), also called interstitial cystitis, is a condition that causes pain in the bladder or pelvis. The pain can be severe. It also causes an urgent, frequent need to urinate. What causes BPS? Some doctors think BPS may be caused by abnormal changes in the...

Bladder Stress Test in Women
A bladder stress test simulates the accidental release of urine (urinary incontinence) that may occur when you cough, sneeze, laugh, or exercise. A Bonney test is done as part of the bladder stress test, after the doctor verifies that urine is lost...

Bladder and Other Urothelial Cancers Screening: Screening - Patient Information [NCI]
Screening is looking for cancer before a person has any symptoms. This can help find cancer at an early stage. When abnormal tissue or cancer is found early, it may be easier to treat. . Tests to screen for bladder cancer. There is no standard screening test for bladder cancer in people at average risk. When enough...

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Test
Discusses blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test. Covers why and how it is done. Includes how to prepare for the test. Covers risks. Explains results of the test. Covers what affects results.

Body Fluids Tests
Blood and urine are often tested to find the cause of health problems. But other body fluids also can be tested. Most of these fluids help organs and joints—and the membranes around them—move smoothly. Sometimes a health problem can cause too much fluid to build up in part of the body. The fluid can be tested to look...

Calcium (Ca) in Urine Test
A test for calcium in urine is a 24-hour test that checks the amount of calcium that is passed from the body in the urine. Calcium is the most common mineral in the body and one of the most important. The body needs it to build and fix bones and teeth, help nerves work, make muscles squeeze together, help blood clot...

Care for an Indwelling Urinary Catheter
A urinary catheter is a flexible plastic tube that's used to drain urine from the bladder when a person can't urinate. The catheter is placed into the bladder by inserting it through the urethra. The urethra is the opening that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. When the catheter is in the...

Caregiving: Adult Underwear for Incontinence
Adult protective underwear may be helpful for a person who has incontinence. A person who has incontinence has trouble controlling urine or stool. This underwear helps absorb urine and catch stool. There are different types of adult underwear. A washable type may be useful when a person has trouble using the disposable...

Caregiving: Using a Bedpan or Urinal
Explains what bedpans and urinals are. Provides step-by-step instructions for how to help someone use them.

Caregiving: Using a Bedside Commode (Toilet)
A bedside commode is a portable toilet. When someone can't make it to the bathroom but is able to get out of bed, it can be a safe way to use the toilet. The doctor may recommend a bedside commode after a surgery or if someone has had some health problems that make it difficult to get to the bathroom. Encourage the...

Catheters for Urinary Incontinence in Men
Types of catheters include: Straight catheter. This is a thin, flexible, hollow tube that is inserted through the urethra into the bladder. It allows the urine to drain out. A straight catheter is used for intermittent self-catheterization. ...

Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD)
What is a central vascular access device (CVAD)? A CVAD is a thin, flexible tube. It's also called a central line. It is used when a person needs to receive medicine, fluids, nutrients, or blood products for several weeks or more. It's often placed in the neck, chest, or arm. Why is it used? CVADs are used to: Give...

Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD): Changing the Dressing
These are general tips. Your nurse may change and care for your CVAD at home. Or a nurse will teach you how to take care of it. Be sure to follow the specific instructions you are given. Call your doctor if you have questions or concerns. In general, a clear dressing needs to be changed once a week, such as every...

Central Vascular Access Device (CVAD): Flushing
A CVAD should be flushed as often as your doctor tells you, to keep it clear of blood and prevent clotting. If it ends in more than one line (lumen), flush them in the same order each time. Depending on the type you have, you will flush it with either heparin or saline solution. Your doctor or nurse will probably give...

Childhood Bladder Cancer Treatment: Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Childhood bladder cancer is a very rare type of cancer that forms in the tissues of the bladder. The bladder is a hollow, balloon-shaped organ in the lower part of the abdomen that stores urine. The bladder has a muscular wall that allows it to get larger to store urine made by the kidneys, and to shrink to squeeze...

Chlamydia Tests
Chlamydia tests use a sample of body fluid or urine to see whether chlamydia bacteria ( Chlamydia trachomatis) are present and causing an infection. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) are used to find chlamydia infection. These tests use a sample of body fluid from areas such as the cervix, vagina, eyes, rectum, or...

Chloride (Cl) Test
A chloride test measures the level of chloride in your blood or urine. Chloride is one of the most important electrolytes in the blood. It helps keep the amount of fluid inside and outside of your cells in balance. It also helps maintain proper blood volume, blood pressure, and pH of your body fluids. Tests for sodium...

Chronic Kidney Disease
Discusses chronic kidney disease (chronic renal failure), which means your kidneys don't work the way they should. Discusses dialysis. Covers treating diabetes and high blood pressure, which cause most cases of chronic kidney disease.

Chronic Kidney Disease: Medicines to Be Careful With
Many medicines may impair kidney function and cause kidney damage. If you have chronic kidney disease, your doctor may advise you to continue to take a medicine but may change how much you take. Or you may change to a different medicine. Make sure you talk with your doctor before you start or stop any medicine...

Chronic Pelvic Pain
Covers pelvic pain that has lasted longer than 6 months. Discusses common causes such as endometriosis. Covers what increases your risk and offers prevention tips. Covers treatment with lifestyle changes, medicines, and surgery.

Circumcision
What is circumcision? Circumcision is a surgery to remove the foreskin, a fold of skin that covers and protects the rounded tip of the penis. The foreskin provides sensation and lubrication for the penis. After the foreskin is removed, it can't be put back on again. If circumcision is done, it's usually done soon after...

Complications of Enlarged Prostate
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) rarely has complications. When it does, they are often due to severe obstruction of the urine flow. These complications include: Complete blockage of the urethra (acute urinary retention, or AUR). This results in a complete inability to urinate. It can cause kidney damage, which may be...

Comprehensive Metabolic Panel
A comprehensive metabolic panel is a blood test that measures your sugar (glucose) level, electrolyte and fluid balance, kidney function, and liver function. Glucose is a type of sugar your body uses for energy. Electrolytes keep your body's fluids in balance. They also help keep your body working normally, including...

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan of the Body
A computed tomography (CT) scan uses X-rays to make detailed pictures of structures inside of the body. During the test, you will lie on a table that is attached to the CT scanner, which is a large doughnut-shaped machine. The CT scanner sends X-rays through the body area being studied. Each rotation of the scanner...

Cranberry Juice and Urinary Tract Infections
For years, people have used cranberry juice to prevent and help cure urinary tract infections (UTIs). There is limited proof that this is worth trying. Pure cranberry juice, cranberry extract, or cranberry supplements may help prevent repeated UTIs in women, but the benefit is small. Using cranberry products to prevent...

Creatinine and Creatinine Clearance Tests
Creatinine and creatinine clearance tests measure the level of the waste product creatinine (say "kree-AT-uh-neen") in your blood and urine. These tests tell how well your kidneys are working. Another substance, creatine (say "KREE-uh-teen"), is formed when food is changed into energy through a process called...

Cryosurgery for Prostate Cancer
Cryosurgery uses extreme cold to destroy cancer cells. It may be used to treat early prostate cancer. It's an option for those who can't have radiation therapy or a more invasive type of surgery. Or it may be used to treat prostate cancer that has come back after radiation therapy. During this treatment, very thin...

Cystectomy
Cystectomy is the surgical removal of all or part of the bladder. It is mainly used to treat bladder cancer that has spread into the bladder wall or to treat cancer that has come back (recurred) after treatment. Partial cystectomy takes out part of the bladder. It is used to treat cancer that has invaded the bladder...

Cystometry
Cystometry is a test that measures the pressure inside of the bladder to see how well the bladder is working. Cystometry is done when a muscle or nerve problem may be causing problems with how well the bladder holds or releases urine. Urination is...

Cystoscopy
A cystoscopy is a procedure that lets a doctor look inside your bladder and urethra. The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. The doctor uses a thin, lighted tool called a cystoscope. With this tool, the...

Daytime Accidental Wetting (Diurnal Enuresis)
Daytime accidental wetting (diurnal enuresis) may be a normal part of a child's growth and development, or it may be caused by a medical condition or by stress. Daytime accidental wetting is more likely than bed-wetting to develop after a child has had bladder control for at least 6 months to 1 year (secondary diurnal...

Diabetic Kidney Disease
Discusses diabetic nephropathy, which is kidney disease or damage caused by diabetes. Covers causes and symptoms. Discusses how it is diagnosed and treatment options, including medicines, diet, and dialysis. Offers home treatment tips.

Dialysis: Measuring How Well It Works
Dialysis removes urea and other waste products from the blood. To find out how well dialysis is working, you will have blood tests that look at the level of urea in your blood. Usually these tests are done once a month, at the start of your session and again at the end. Two of the measures that show how well dialysis is...

Diuretics and Potassium Supplements
Some diuretics can cause low levels of potassium. A delicate balance of potassium is needed to properly transmit electrical impulses in the heart. A low potassium level can disrupt the normal electrical impulses in the heart and lead to irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias). If potassium levels are low, a potassium...

Donating a Kidney
Kidney transplantation is the best way known to save a person's life after the person develops kidney failure. In the past, kidneys were only taken from living close relatives or from people who had recently died. Transplants from living donors have a better chance of success than those from deceased donors. Also, in...

Drinking Enough Water
Why is it important to drink enough water? Water keeps every part of your body working properly. It helps your body flush wastes and stay at the right temperature. It can help prevent kidney stones and constipation. You lose water throughout the day—through your breath, sweat, urine, and bowel movements. If you live in...

Electrical Stimulation for Urinary Incontinence
Electrical stimulation is used to treat urinary incontinence by sending a mild electric current to nerves in the lower back or the pelvic muscles that are involved in urination. You may be able to provide electrical stimulation therapy at home...

Electrolyte Panel
An electrolyte panel is a blood test that measures the levels of electrolytes and carbon dioxide in your blood. Electrolytes are minerals, such as sodium and potassium, that are found in the body. They keep your body's fluids in balance and help keep your body working normally, including your heart rhythm, muscle...

End-Stage Renal Disease
What is end-stage renal disease? End-stage renal disease means that your kidneys may no longer be able to keep you alive. When your kidneys get to the point where they can no longer remove waste, you may need dialysis or a new kidney. When you understand your options, you can make the choice that's best for you...

Foods High in Oxalate
Oxalate is a compound found in some foods, and it is also produced as a waste product by the body. It exits the body through the urine. Too much oxalate may cause kidney stones in some people. Foods high in oxalate include: Beets. Fried potatoes, such as french fries and potato chips. Nuts. Rhubarb. Spinach.

Functional Incontinence
Functional incontinence means that you can't get to or use a toilet in time to urinate. This usually happens because something gets in your way or you aren't able to walk there on your own. Functional incontinence usually occurs because something...

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
Glomerular filtration is the process by which the kidneys filter the blood, removing excess wastes and fluids. The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is a calculation that determines how well the blood is filtered by the kidneys. This is one way to measure kidney function. The eGFR is also used to find the...

Gonorrhea Test
Gonorrhea tests tell if a person has this disease. They look for the bacterium, or germ, that causes gonorrhea. Testing is done on body fluid or urine samples. Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted infection. That means it is spread through sexual contact. It does not always cause symptoms. Tests used to find a gonorrhea...

Hemodialysis
Discusses process of hemodialysis when chronic kidney disease and acute kidney injury cause kidneys to lose ability to remove waste and extra fluid. Covers fistulas and grafts. Looks at what to expect after treatment. Discusses peritoneal dialysis.

Hereditary Kidney Cancer Syndromes (PDQ®): Genetics - Patient Information [NCI]
Kidney cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in tubules of the kidney. Kidney cancer (also called renal cell cancer) is cancer that starts in the lining of very small tubes in the kidney called renal tubules. There are two kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. Tubules in the...

Home Test for Urinary Tract Infections
Discusses test kits you can get without a prescription to use at home to check for urinary tract infections (UTIs). Looks at how test is done and how to prepare. Discusses possible results.

Hormone Therapy for Prostate Cancer (Androgen Deprivation Therapy, or ADT)
Hormone therapy treats prostate cancer by lowering the level of certain hormones in the body. These hormones are called androgens. Prostate cancer needs androgens to grow. The main androgen is testosterone. Reducing the level of testosterone can slow the growth of prostate cancer and even shrink the tumors. The...

Hypospadias
What is hypospadias? Hypospadias is a birth defect in which the opening of the tube that carries urine from the body (urethra) develops abnormally, usually on the underside of the penis. The opening can occur anywhere from just below the end of the penis to the scrotum. What causes it? In most cases, the cause of this...

Interactive Tool: How Bad Are Your Urinary Symptoms From Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)?
Interactive tool to help you figure out whether you want treatment for urinary symptoms from benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Provides links to more detailed info on BPH and decision tools for treatment options.

Interactive Tools
These Interactive Tools are easy-to-use personal calculators. Use any of them to start learning more about your health. Health and Fitness Tools Do Your BMI and Waist Size Increase Your Health Risks? How Bad Are Your Urinary Symptoms From Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)? How Many Calories Did You Burn? What Is Your...

Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP)
An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is an X-ray test that provides pictures of the kidneys, the bladder, the ureters, and the urethra ( urinary tract). An IVP can show the size, shape, and position of the urinary tract, and it can evaluate the collecting system inside the kidneys. During IVP, a dye called contrast material...

Kegel Exercises
Kegel exercises make your pelvic floor muscles stronger. These muscles control your urine flow and help hold your pelvic organs in place. Doctors often prescribe Kegels for: Stress incontinence. This means leaking urine when you laugh, cough,...

Kidney (Renal Cell) Cancer
Describes kidney cancer. Covers symptoms and how kidney cancer is diagnosed. Covers treatment with surgery and medicines.

Kidney Biopsy
Discusses kidney biopsy (also called percutaneous renal biopsy) done with a long, thin needle to remove a sample of kidney tissue. Covers how it may be done to check for kidney disease or after a kidney transplant. Explains how it's done, risks, and results.

Kidney Disease: Changing Your Diet
Discusses changing your diet to help protect your kidneys when you have kidney disease. Gives general ideas about how to follow the diet your doctor or dietitian recommends. Covers limiting salt (sodium), protein, phosphorus, and potassium.

Kidney Failure: Should I Start Dialysis?
Guides through decision whether to start kidney dialysis for kidney failure. Covers key factors in decision. Covers benefits and risks. Offers interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Kidney Failure: What Type of Dialysis Should I Have?
Guides through decision about what type of dialysis to have for kidney failure. Explains the two basic types of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal. Covers benefits and risks. Includes an interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Kidney Failure: When Should I Start Dialysis?
Discusses the decision about when to start dialysis. Includes what kidney failure is, the treatment for it, and reasons why you might or might not want to start dialysis. Includes interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Kidney Health Testing for People With Diabetes
If you have diabetes, your kidneys could become damaged over time. Diabetic kidney disease is sometimes called diabetic nephropathy. In severe cases, it can lead to kidney failure. Diabetic kidney disease usually has no symptoms in the early stages. So it's important to have regular tests. They can alert you and your...

Kidney Scan
Discusses nuclear scanning test to check way kidney works or its shape and size. Also called a renal scan. Covers use to check for cancer or how transplanted kidney is working. Explains how camera scans for radiation to make pictures of kidney.

Kidney Stone Analysis
Covers test done on a kidney stone to find out what the stone is made of. Links to info on types of stones, including calcium, uric acid, struvite, and cystine. Explains that test can help doctor decide treatment or give info on preventing more stones from forming.

Kidney Stones
Explains why and how kidney stones form. Covers types of stones such as calcium, cystine, uric acid, and struvite. Discusses symptoms. Covers treatment, including extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy and ureteroscopy. Offers prevention tips.

Kidney Stones: Preventing Kidney Stones Through Diet
Offers tips for changing your diet to help prevent kidney stones. Discusses water, protein, and fiber needs and limiting or avoiding certain foods and supplements. Includes tips for people who've had a calcium or oxalate kidney stone.

Kidney Transplant
Discusses surgery to replace a diseased kidney with a healthy one. Explains what a living donor is. Covers what to expect after surgery. Looks at risks. Links to picture of kidney transplant. Links to more in-depth info on organ transplant.

Laparoscopic Surgery
Laparoscopy (say "lap-uh-ROSS-kuh-pee") is a type of surgery that uses very small cuts. These cuts are called incisions. The doctor puts a lighted tube through incisions in your belly. This tube is called a scope. Then the doctor puts special tools through the tube to do the surgery. The surgery may be done to diagnose...

Laparoscopy
Laparoscopy (say "lap-uh-ROSS-kuh-pee") is a type of surgery that uses very small cuts. These cuts are called incisions. The doctor puts a lighted tube through incisions in your belly. This tube is called a scope. Then the doctor puts special tools through the tube to do the surgery. The surgery may be done to diagnose...

Living With More Than One Health Problem
Many people have more than one long-term (chronic) health problem. You may be one of them. For example, you may have high blood pressure and diabetes, or you may have high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart failure. When you have more than one problem, doctors call the health problems comorbidities. One health problem...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Discusses test (also called MRI scan) that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body. Covers why it is done, how to prepare, and how it is done.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Abdomen
Discusses test (also called MRI scan) that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the belly. Covers why it is done, how to prepare, and how it is done. Discusses results.

Medicines That Can Cause Acute Kidney Injury
Many medicines can cause acute kidney injury (acute renal failure), such as: Antibiotics. These include aminoglycosides, cephalosporins, amphotericin B, bacitracin, and vancomycin. Some blood pressure medicines. One example is ACE inhibitors, such as lisinopril and ramipril. Another is angiotensin receptor blockers...

Moisture Alarms for Bed-Wetting
Moisture alarms are the most successful single treatment for bed-wetting. They work best for older children who can hear the alarm and wake themselves. If attempts to use a reward system (motivational therapy), drink most fluids in the morning and afternoon, and use the toilet right before going to bed aren't helping...

Motivational Therapy for Bed-Wetting
Motivational therapy for bed-wetting uses praise, encouragement, and rewards to help a child gain bladder control. It's about telling children that they have control of their bodies and encouraging them to take steps that bring about more and more dry nights. For best results, keep a record of your child's progress. And...

Multi-Organ Transplants
Teaches basic information about multi-organ transplants, including why they are done, how well they work, and what the risks are.

Multiple Sclerosis: Bladder Problems
When you have MS, your bladder may not empty. This is because the muscle that retains urine can't relax. Sometimes urination can be started by pressing or tapping the bladder area or by straining. Medicines can also help in some cases. If these treatments don't help, you may need to use a straight urinary catheter. You...

Nephrectomy
Covers surgical removal of all or part of the kidney. Discusses why it may be done, such as for kidney cancer or to remove a damaged kidney. Looks at how well it works and the risks.

Nephrotic Syndrome
Discusses nephrotic syndrome, a sign kidneys aren't working right. Includes high levels of protein in urine, low levels of protein in blood, and high cholesterol. Discusses swelling (edema) and kidney failure. Covers causes like diabetes. Covers treatment.

Open Surgery for Kidney Stones
Discusses traditional surgery used to remove kidney stones. Covers why it is done and what to expect after surgery. Covers risks.

Organ Transplant
Answers questions about organ transplants. Covers becoming an organ donor and getting on a waiting list. Covers tests used to see if you'd be a good candidate. Looks at medicines that you might take after a transplant. Offers tips for staying healthy.

Overactive Bladder
Discusses overactive bladder, a kind of urge incontinence. Explains what overactive bladder is. Looks at causes and symptoms. Covers how it is diagnosed. Offers home treatment and prevention tips.

Overflow Incontinence
Overflow incontinence means that you may have the urge to urinate, but you can release only a small amount. Then later, urine leaks out. Or it can mean that your bladder becomes too full and then leaks urine. Overflow incontinence can be caused by:...

Pain Management
What is pain? Pain is your body's way of warning you that something may be wrong. Pain can affect your emotions as well as your body. For example, if you put your hand on a hot stove, the pain lets you know right away that you're hurt and need to protect yourself. Pain can also make you feel irritable, anxious, or...

Pain Management Clinic
Chronic pain often requires both counseling and medical treatment, because it can have a wearing effect on both the body and the mind. At a pain management clinic, you can get multidisciplinary treatment from a team of specialists, including: Physiatrists. These medical doctors specialize in physical medicine and...

Pelvic Exam
Discusses complete physical exam of a woman's pelvic organs by a health professional. Includes info on exam of vagina, cervix, uterus, and ovaries. Explains how exam is done. Discusses speculum, stirrups, Pap test, and reproductive health problems.

Pelvic Organ Prolapse
What is pelvic organ prolapse? Pelvic organ prolapse means that a pelvic organ—such as your bladder—has moved from its normal position and is pressing against your vagina. This can happen when the muscles and tissues that hold your pelvic organs in place get weak or damaged. Pelvic organ prolapse is common. It isn't...

Pelvic Organ Prolapse: Should I Have Surgery?
Guides through decision to have surgery for pelvic organ prolapse. Explains symptoms and discusses several types of surgeries used for different symptoms. Covers benefits and risks. Includes an interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Pelvic Ultrasound
Discusses test that uses sound waves to make a picture of organs and structures in the lower belly (pelvis). Covers transabdominal, transrectal, and transvaginal ultrasound. Discusses use to check for different cancers.

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy or Nephrolithotripsy
Looks at procedures to remove kidney stones from the kidneys. Explains difference between nephrolithotomy and nephrolithotripsy. Looks at when each may be done. Covers risks.

Peritoneal Dialysis
Discusses peritoneal dialysis. Covers having a catheter and using dialysate solution. Discusses hemodialysis. Looks at what to expect after treatment, how well it works, and risks.

Phosphate in Blood Test
A phosphate test measures the amount of phosphate in a blood sample. Phosphate is a charged particle (ion) that contains the mineral phosphorus. The body needs phosphorus to build and repair bones and teeth, help nerves function, and make muscles contract. Most (about 85%) of the phosphorus contained in phosphate is...

Phosphate in Urine Test
The phosphate urine test measures the amount of phosphate in a sample of urine collected over 24 hours (24-hour urine test). Phosphate is a charged particle (ion) that contains the mineral phosphorus. The body needs phosphorus to build and repair bones and teeth, help nerves function, and make muscles contract. Most...

Post-Void Residual Urine Test
The post-void residual (PVR) urine test measures the amount of urine left in the bladder after urination. The test is used to help evaluate: Incontinence (accidental release of urine) in women and men. Urination problems. An enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia, or BPH). The amount of leftover (residual)...

Potassium (K) in Blood Test
Discusses blood test to check level of potassium (K) in blood. Includes info on what affects potassium levels in the body such as kidney function, blood pH, and hormones. Explains how and why test is done. Covers what results mean.

Potassium (K) in Urine Test
Discusses test to check level of potassium (K) in urine. Includes info on what affects potassium levels in the body such as kidney function, blood pH, and hormones. Explains how and why test is done. Covers what results mean.

Prostate Biopsy
A prostate biopsy is a test to remove small samples of prostate tissue to be looked at under a microscope. The tissue samples taken are looked at for cancer cells. For a transrectal prostate biopsy, an ultrasound probe is inserted into the rectum. Guided by ultrasound, a spring-loaded needle is used to take samples from...

Prostate Cancer
Provides info on an initial diagnosis. Discusses diagnostic tests, including PSA test and digital rectal exam. Covers symptoms common to prostate cancer and other conditions. Discusses treatment with active surveillance, surgery, or radiation. Also offers prevention tips.

Prostate Cancer Prevention (PDQ®): Prevention - Patient Information [NCI]
Cancer prevention is action taken to lower the chance of getting cancer. By preventing cancer, the number of new cases of cancer in a group or population is lowered. Hopefully, this will lower the number of deaths caused by cancer. To prevent new cancers from starting, scientists look at risk factors and protective...

Prostate Cancer Screening
The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test can help find prostate cancer early. But it may not help you live any longer than if you had no screening. And it could lead to harmful treatments that you don't need. Talk with your doctor about your health, your risk factors for prostate cancer, and the pros and cons of PSA...

Prostate Cancer Screening (PDQ®): Screening - Patient Information [NCI]
Screening is looking for cancer before a person has any symptoms. This can help find cancer at an early stage. When abnormal tissue or cancer is found early, it may be easier to treat. By the time symptoms appear, cancer may have begun to spread. Scientists are trying to better understand which people are more likely to...

Prostate Cancer Screening: Should I Have a PSA Test?
Guides through decision to have a PSA test to check for prostate cancer. Includes what PSA results tell you and what they do not. Covers benefits and risks. Includes an interactive tool to help you decide.

Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Prostate cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the prostate. The prostate is a gland in the male reproductive system. It lies just below the bladder (the organ that collects and empties urine) and in front of the rectum (the lower part of the intestine). It is about the size of a...

Prostate Cancer, Advanced or Metastatic
Discusses prostate cancer that has spread or come back. Discusses symptoms. Covers treatment choices and factors that will affect them, including age, PSA level, Gleason score, and how far cancer has spread. Covers end-of-life issues.

Prostate Cancer, Nutrition, and Dietary Supplements (PDQ®): Integrative, alternative, and complementary therapies - Patient Information [NCI]
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a form of treatment used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. . In the United States, about 1 out of every 8 men will be diagnosed with prostate cancer. It is the second most common cancer in men in the United States. CAM use...

Prostate Cancer: Should I Choose Active Surveillance?
Guides you through decision to use active surveillance for men who have low-risk and for some men who have medium-risk localized prostate cancer. Lists reasons for and against active surveillance. Includes interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Prostate Cancer: Should I Have Radiation or Surgery for Localized Prostate Cancer?
Guides you through choosing between radiation therapy and surgery (prostatectomy) to treat prostate cancer. Lists reasons for and against radiation therapy. Also lists reasons for and against surgery. Includes interactive tool to help you make your decision.

Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test
Discusses prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test to measure amount of PSA in the blood. Explains that test is often used for cancer screening or follow-up. Covers how test is done and how to prepare for it. Discusses what results mean.

Prostatitis
Covers the various types of prostatitis, including acute bacterial, inflammatory, noninflammatory, and chronic pelvic pain syndrome. Covers symptoms for each type. Discusses treatment for each type. Covers lifestyle changes, medicines, and surgery.

Radiation Therapy for Prostate Cancer
Radiation therapy uses high doses of radiation, such as X-rays, to destroy cancer cells. The radiation damages the genetic material of the cells so that they can't grow. Radiation damages normal cells as well as cancer cells. But the normal cells can repair themselves and function, while the cancer cells cannot...

Radical Prostatectomy
Looks at surgery to remove the prostate gland in those who have prostate cancer. Covers traditional and laparoscopic surgery. Covers how well it works. Looks at risks.

Renal Artery Stenosis
Learn the basics of renal artery stenosis, including what it is, what causes it, and how it is treated.

Renal Cell Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Renal cell cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in tubules of the kidney. Renal cell cancer (also called kidney cancer or renal cell adenocarcinoma) is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the lining of tubules (very small tubes) in the kidney. There are 2 kidneys, one on each...

Repair of Bladder Prolapse (Cystocele) or Urethra Prolapse (Urethrocele)
Two common forms of pelvic organ prolapse are bladder prolapse (cystocele) and urethral prolapse (urethrocele). A cystocele occurs when the wall of the bladder presses against and moves the wall of the vagina. A urethrocele occurs when the urethra moves from its normal position and presses against the wall of the...

Retrograde Pyelogram for Kidney Stones
Briefly discusses test used to see if a kidney stone or something else is blocking your urinary tract. Covers how it is done and possible results.

Retropubic Suspension Surgery
Retropubic suspension surgery is used to treat urinary incontinence. It lifts the sagging bladder neck and urethra that have dropped abnormally low in the pelvic area. The doctor makes a cut (incision) in the belly wall to access the bladder and urethra. This surgery can be done by making one big incision (open surgery)...

Rhabdomyolysis
What is rhabdomyolysis? Rhabdomyolysis (say "rab-doh-my-AH-luh-suss") is a rare but serious muscle problem. When you have it, your muscle cells break down, or dissolve. The contents of those cells leak into the blood. When it's in the blood, that material can travel to various parts of the body and cause problems. If...

Rye Grass Pollen Extract
Rye grass pollen extract comes from the pollen of rye grass ( Secale cereale). Rye grass pollen extract may affect the male hormone testosterone, relax the muscles of the tube through which urine flows (urethra), and improve how well the bladder can force urine out.

Saw Palmetto
Saw palmetto is a type of palm tree that grows in the southeastern United States. The berry of the saw palmetto plant contains a compound that may reduce the symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which is a noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland. Symptoms of an enlarged prostate include dribbling after...

Self-Catheterization (Female)
Provides step-by-step instructions for inserting and removing a catheter.

Self-Catheterization (Male)
Provides step-by-step instructions for inserting and removing a catheter.

Sexually Transmitted Infections: How a Male Genital Exam Is Done
During this exam for sexually transmitted infections, the doctor: Looks for discharge from your penis. The doctor may put a thin swab into the urethra and take a sample of fluid and cells to test for infections such as chlamydia or gonorrhea. Checks your testicles for swelling and tenderness. May look at the end of your...

Shock Wave Lithotripsy
Discusses shock wave lithotripsy, a procedure that uses shock waves to break a kidney stone into smaller pieces. Covers how it is done and what to expect after treatment. Covers risks.

Simple Prostatectomy for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Discusses traditional surgery to remove an enlarged prostate. Covers what to expect after surgery and risks.

Sodium (Na) in Blood Test
A sodium test checks how much sodium is in the blood. Sodium is both an electrolyte and mineral. It helps keep the water (the amount of fluid inside and outside the body's cells) and electrolyte balance of the body. Sodium is also important in how nerves and muscles work. Most of the sodium in the body is found in blood...

Sodium (Na) in Urine Test
A test for sodium in the urine is a 24-hour test or a one-time (spot) test that checks for how much sodium is in the urine. Sodium is both an electrolyte and a mineral. It helps keep the water (the amount of fluid inside and outside the body's cells) and electrolyte balance of the body. Sodium is also important in how...

Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease
The stages of chronic kidney disease are determined mostly by the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Glomerular filtration is the process by which the kidneys filter the blood, removing excess wastes and fluids. The eGFR is a calculation that determines how well the blood is filtered by the kidneys. It is one...

Stress Incontinence
Stress incontinence means that you leak a small amount of urine when you do something that puts stress, strain, or pressure on your bladder. It can happen when you cough, laugh, strain, lift something, or change position. Stress incontinence is...

Stroke: Bladder and Bowel Problems
Urinary incontinence Some people who have a stroke suffer loss of bladder control (urinary incontinence) after the stroke. But this is usually temporary. And it can have many causes, including infection, constipation, and the effects of medicines. If you have problems controlling your bladder, your doctor may: Test a...

Suprapubic Catheter Care
A suprapubic catheter is a thin tube that drains urine from your bladder. The tube is put into your bladder through a small cut in your lower belly. The urine collects in a bag attached to the tube. The bag is usually attached to your leg. Sometimes the catheter tube has a valve that lets you drain the urine into the...

Syphilis Tests
Syphilis tests are done to check for a syphilis infection. They look for antibodies to the bacteria that cause syphilis. Some tests look for the syphilis bacteria. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection. That means it is spread through sexual contact: vaginal, anal, or oral sex. It can also spread to the fetus of...

Total Serum Protein Test
A total serum protein test measures the total amount of protein in the blood. It also measures the amounts of two major groups of proteins in the blood: albumin and globulin. Albumin. This is made mainly in the liver. It helps keep the blood from leaking out of blood vessels. Albumin also helps carry some medicines and...

Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter is a type of cancer that forms in the transitional cells of the renal pelvis and ureter. Transitional cells are a type of cell that lines the inside of the renal pelvis, ureters, and other organs. These cells are able to stretch when the renal pelvis or bladder is...

Transurethral Incision of the Prostate (TUIP) for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
You will likely stay in the hospital for 1 to 3 days after surgery. Most people can go back to work or their usual routine in about 3 to 5 weeks. But it can take longer to fully recover. A thin, flexible tube called a catheter usually is left in your bladder to drain your urine for 1 to 2 weeks. Your doctor will give...

Transurethral Microwave Therapy (TUMT) for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
In transurethral microwave therapy (TUMT), an instrument (called an antenna) that sends out microwave energy is inserted through the urethra to a location inside the prostate. Microwave energy is then used to heat the inside of the prostate. Cooling fluid is circulated around the microwave antenna to prevent heat from...

Transurethral Prostatectomy for Prostatitis
Briefly discusses surgery to remove the prostate gland through the urethra. Covers why it is done and how well it works. Lists risks.

Transurethral Resection of the Bladder
Transurethral resection of the bladder is a surgery to remove abnormal tissue (tumor) from the bladder through the urethra. It is also called transurethral resection of bladder tumor, or TURBT. A tumor in the bladder may be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). This surgery uses a special tool to find and remove a...

Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP)
Describes the TURP procedure and what to expect afterward.

Types of Kidney Stones
The four main types of kidney stones are: Calcium stones. Most kidney stones are made of calcium compounds. Conditions that cause high calcium levels in the body, such as hyperparathyroidism, increase the risk of calcium stones. Uric acid stones. Some kidney stones are made of uric acid, a waste product in urine. You're...

Uremia
Uremia (uremic syndrome) is a serious complication of chronic kidney disease and acute kidney injury (which used to be known as acute renal failure). It occurs when urea and other waste products build up in the body because the kidneys are unable to eliminate them. These substances can become poisonous (toxic) to the...

Ureteroscopy
A ureteroscopy is a type of procedure. Your doctor may do it to remove kidney stones from one of your ureters. These are the tubes that carry urine from your kidneys to your bladder. Your doctor may also do it to help find the reason for a urinary infection or blood in your urine. Your doctor puts a thin scope with very...

Urethral Bulking for Urinary Incontinence
Urethral bulking to treat stress urinary incontinence involves injecting material around the urethra. This may be done to build up the thickness of the wall of the urethra so it seals tightly when you hold back urine. Most bulking materials are...

Urethral Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the urethra. The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. In women, the urethra is about 1½ inches long and is just above the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 8 inches long, and goes through the...

Urethral Sling Surgery
Urethral sling surgery is done to treat stress incontinence. A sling is placed around the urethra to support it and help it retain urine. Your urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. There are different types of...

Urge Incontinence
Urge incontinence is a need to urinate that is so strong that you can't get to the toilet in time. It can occur when the bladder contains only a small amount of urine. Some people have no warning before they accidentally leak urine. Others may leak...

Uric Acid in Blood Test
The blood uric acid test measures the amount of uric acid in a blood sample. Uric acid is produced from the natural breakdown of your body's cells and from the foods you eat. Most of the uric acid is filtered out by the kidneys and passes out of the body in urine. A small amount passes out of the body in stool. But if...

Uric Acid in Urine Test
The uric acid urine test measures the amount of uric acid in a sample of urine collected over 24 hours. Uric acid is made from the natural breakdown of your body's cells. It's also made from the foods you eat. Your kidneys take uric acid out of your blood and put it into urine so that it can leave your body. But if your...

Urinary Incontinence
What is urinary incontinence? Urinary incontinence is the accidental release of urine. It can happen when you cough, laugh, sneeze, or jog. Or you may have a sudden need to go to the toilet but can't get there in time. These problems are very common, especially among older adults. They usually don't cause major health...

Urinary Incontinence: Keeping a Daily Record
Keeping a daily record can help you and your doctor find the best treatment for urinary incontinence. Keep a record of what you drink and all urine released, whether voluntary or involuntary. Your doctor may call this a voiding diary or bladder...

Urinary Obstruction in Children
A urinary obstruction refers to anything that blocks, slows, or disrupts the normal flow of urine through the urinary tract. Obstructions can occur at any point in the urinary tract. They can be present at birth (congenital) or develop later. Urinary obstructions disrupt normal urine flow and allow bacteria to grow in...

Urinary Problems and Injuries, Age 11 and Younger
Briefly discusses the urinary system in children. Covers possible causes of problems in young children. Offers interactive tool to help decide when to seek care. Also offers home treatment tips.

Urinary Problems and Injuries, Age 12 and Older
Briefly discusses the urinary system in teens and adults. Covers possible causes of problems, infections, and changes with age. Offers interactive tool to help decide when to seek care. Also offers home treatment tips.

Urinary Problems and Prostate Cancer
Both prostate cancer and its treatment may cause urinary problems. Urinary problems caused by prostate cancer The urethra—the tube that carries urine from your bladder and through your penis—passes through the middle of the prostate gland. When the prostate presses against the urethra, you can have trouble passing...

Urinary System
Includes info on urine tests and urinary tract infections in children, teens, and adults. Also has links to stress incontinence and kidney stone info.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Risks for Older Adults
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in older women and men. Things that make older adults more likely to develop UTIs include: An immune system that isn't as strong as when the person was younger. A reduced ability to control urination and bowel movements (incontinence). This increases the chance of getting...

Urinary Tract Infections in Children
Discusses urinary tract infection in children 12 years and younger. Covers symptoms and how problems might be diagnosed with urinalysis or a urine culture. Looks at treatment with antibiotics. Offers home treatment and prevention tips.

Urinary Tract Infections in Teens and Adults
Discusses urinary tract infection in teens and adults. Covers symptoms and how problems might be diagnosed with urinalysis or a urine culture. Looks at treatment with antibiotics. Offers home treatment and prevention tips.

Urine Culture
A urine culture is a test to find germs (such as bacteria) in the urine that can cause an infection. Bacteria can enter through the urethra and cause a urinary tract infection (UTI). A sample of urine is added to a substance that promotes the...

Urine Test
A urine test checks different components of urine, a waste product made by the kidneys. It checks the color, clarity (clear or cloudy), odor, concentration, and acidity (pH) of your urine. It also checks your levels of protein, sugar, blood cells, or other substances in your urine. A urine test may be done to help find...

Urodynamic Tests
Urodynamic testing is a group of tests that show how your body stores and releases urine. The type of test varies from person to person. A simple urodynamic test is done in a doctor's office. Other tests may be done in a hospital or surgery center....

Uroflowmetry Test
The uroflowmetry test measures how much and how fast (maximum flow rate) urine flows during urination. Results are usually given in milliliters per second (mL/sec). This test is sometimes used to evaluate the impact that benign prostatic hyperplasia...

Urostomy Care
Understanding how to care for your ostomy will help you live comfortably with it. An ostomy nurse is a great support. The nurse will help you learn to manage your ostomy so you can get back to a normal life. This will include learning how a pouch system works and how to replace your ostomy pouch. Your nurse will also...

Using a Home Test Kit for Protein in Urine
Your doctor may have you check the amount of protein in your urine at home. Increased protein might be a sign that your kidneys are being damaged. You can buy a simple test kit with urine testing strips at most pharmacies and drugstores. To test your urine each day, dip a urine testing strip into a fresh sample of your...

Vascular Access Failure
Any type of dialysis access has some risk of failure. So it's important to always protect your access and be alert for signs of clotting or infection. Call your doctor right away about any signs of trouble. Make a habit of talking with your dialysis nurses and doctor about how well your access is doing. If your dialysis...

Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR)
What is vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)? Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the backward flow of urine from the bladder into the kidneys. Normally, urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder. The muscles of the bladder and ureters, along with the pressure of urine in the bladder, prevent urine from flowing...

Voiding Cystourethrogram
A voiding cystourethrogram (say "sis-toh-you-REE-throh-gram") is a test that is done to see if there are problems with the urinary system and to see how urine flows out of the bladder. This test, also called a VCUG, uses contrast fluid and X-rays so...

Voiding Log (Bladder Record)
Complete one of these records each day for several days, then take the completed records to your doctor. This information will help you and your doctor see how often you leak urine and what seems to cause the leakage. Name: Date: Instructions: Place a check mark in the appropriate column next to the time you urinated in...

Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors Treatment (PDQ®): Treatment - Patient Information [NCI]
Childhood kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the kidney. There are two kidneys, one on each side of the spine, above the waist. Tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood. They take out waste products and make urine. The urine passes from each kidney through a...